Why Referencing Matters
Every academic assignment requires proper referencing.
Two critical reasons:
1. Avoid plagiarism: Using ideas without citation = academic theft (severe consequences—fail assignment, suspension, expulsion)
2. Academic integrity: Show your research, allow readers to find sources, demonstrate scholarly rigor
Not optional—it’s essential.
What is Referencing?
Referencing = giving credit to authors whose work you’ve used.
Two parts:
- In-text citations: Brief references within your essay
- Reference list (or Bibliography): Full details at end
Every in-text citation must appear in reference list, and vice versa.
When to Reference
You must cite:
- Direct quotes (word-for-word from source)
- Paraphrases (rewording someone’s ideas)
- Statistics, data, facts (not common knowledge)
- Theories, models, frameworks
- Images, tables, graphs (from other sources)
You don’t need to cite:
- Common knowledge (“Kenya is in East Africa”)
- Your own original ideas
- Your own data/research findings
When in doubt, cite.
Major Referencing Styles
Different disciplines use different styles.
Most common in Kenyan universities:
1. APA (American Psychological Association):
- Psychology, education, social sciences
2. Harvard:
- Business, humanities, some sciences
3. MLA (Modern Language Association):
- Literature, arts
4. Chicago:
- History
5. IEEE:
- Engineering, computer science
6. Vancouver:
- Medicine, health sciences
This guide focuses on APA and Harvard (most common).
Check your assignment brief—use the style specified.
APA Style (7th Edition)
In-Text Citations
Basic format: (Author, Year)
Example:
Corruption undermines economic development in Kenya (Wainaina, 2019).
Or:
Wainaina (2019) argues that corruption undermines economic development in Kenya.
Direct quote:
“Corruption is Kenya’s greatest obstacle to prosperity” (Wainaina, 2019, p. 45).
Multiple authors:
- One author: (Ngugi, 2020)
- Two authors: (Ngugi & Achebe, 2020)
- Three or more: (Odhiambo et al., 2020)
Multiple works by same author in same year:
- (Wainaina, 2019a)
- (Wainaina, 2019b)
Multiple citations:
- (Ngugi, 2018; Achebe, 2019; Wainaina, 2020)
- Alphabetical order, separated by semicolons
No author:
- Use title: (“Corruption Report,” 2021)
Organization as author:
- First citation: (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics [KNBS], 2022)
- Subsequent: (KNBS, 2022)
Secondary source (citing something you found in another source):
- Avoid if possible (find original)
- If unavoidable: Smith (as cited in Jones, 2020)
Reference List
At end of essay, titled “References”.
Alphabetical order by author’s last name.
Hanging indent: First line flush left, subsequent lines indented.
Format varies by source type:
Book
Format:
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book. Publisher.
Example:
Ngugi wa Thiong’o. (1986). Decolonising the mind: The politics of language in African literature. Heinemann.
Edited book:
Ochieng, W. R. (Ed.). (1989). Themes in Kenyan history. Heinemann Kenya.
Chapter in edited book:
Mutunga, W. (2015). Constitutional implementation in Kenya. In M. Ndulo (Ed.), Democratic reform in Africa: Its impact on governance and poverty alleviation (pp. 45-67). Ohio University Press.
Journal Article
Format:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Journal Name, volume(issue), page-page. DOI or URL
Example:
Wainaina, B., Otieno, J., & Kamau, M. (2020). The impact of corruption on economic growth in Kenya. East African Journal of Economics, 15(3), 234-256. https://doi.org/10.1234/eaje.2020.15.3.234
If no DOI, use URL:
Mwangi, S. (2019). Education reforms in Kenya. Journal of African Studies, 12(1), 45-58. https://www.jas.org/articles/2019
No DOI or URL:
Omit URL, just end with page range.
Website/Online Article
Format:
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of page. Website Name. URL
Example:
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2022, March 15). Economic survey 2022. KNBS. https://www.knbs.or.ke/economic-survey-2022
No author:
Economic survey 2022. (2022, March 15). Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. https://www.knbs.or.ke
No date:
Use (n.d.) for “no date” Kenya Education Network. (n.d.). CBC implementation guide. https://www.kenet.or.ke
Newspaper Article
Print:
Omondi, P. (2023, June 12). Schools struggle with CBC implementation. Daily Nation, p. A3.
Online:
Omondi, P. (2023, June 12). Schools struggle with CBC implementation. Daily Nation. https://www.nation.co.ke/kenya/news/schools-struggle
Report
Government/organization:
World Bank. (2021). Kenya economic update: Navigating the pandemic. World Bank Group.
With author:
Njoroge, J., & Odhiambo, W. (2020). State of education in Kenya 2020. Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis.
Thesis/Dissertation
Mwangi, A. K. (2019). The impact of mobile money on financial inclusion in Kenya [Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi]. University of Nairobi Digital Repository.
Conference Paper
Otieno, R. (2022, August 10-12). Technology adoption in Kenyan SMEs [Conference presentation]. African Business Conference, Nairobi, Kenya.
Special Cases
Multiple works by same author:
- List chronologically (oldest first)
Ngugi wa Thiong’o. (1977). Petals of blood. Heinemann. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. (1986). Decolonising the mind. Heinemann.
No author:
- Alphabetize by title (ignore A, An, The)
Social media:
Safaricom [@Safaricom_Care]. (2023, May 20). We are experiencing network issues… [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/Safaricom_Care/status/123456789
YouTube video:
Kenya School of Government. (2021, September 5). Understanding devolution in Kenya [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abc123
Podcast:
Host, A. (Host). (2022, January 15). Episode title (No. 42) [Audio podcast episode]. In Podcast Name. Publisher. URL
Harvard Style
Variations exist (no single official Harvard style), but basics are consistent.
In-Text Citations
Basic format: (Author Year) or (Author Year, page)
Example:
Corruption undermines development (Wainaina 2019).
Or:
Wainaina (2019) argues that corruption undermines development.
Direct quote:
“Corruption is Kenya’s greatest obstacle” (Wainaina 2019, p. 45).
Or:
Wainaina (2019, p. 45) states, “Corruption is Kenya’s greatest obstacle.”
Multiple authors:
- One author: (Ngugi 2020)
- Two authors: (Ngugi and Achebe 2020)
- Three or more: (Odhiambo et al. 2020)
Multiple works:
- Same author, different years: (Ngugi 2018, 2020)
- Different authors: (Ngugi 2018; Achebe 2019; Wainaina 2020)
Same author, same year:
- (Wainaina 2019a, 2019b)
No author:
- (‘Corruption report’ 2021)
Organization:
- First citation: (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS) 2022)
- Subsequent: (KNBS 2022)
Reference List (or Bibliography)
At end, titled “References” or “Bibliography”.
Alphabetical.
Hanging indent.
Book
Format:
Author, AA Year, Title of book, Publisher, Place of publication.
Example:
Ngugi wa Thiong’o 1986, Decolonising the mind: the politics of language in African literature, Heinemann, London.
Two authors:
Ngugi wa Thiong’o and Ngugi wa Mirii 1982, I will marry when I want, Heinemann, Nairobi.
Three or more authors:
Odhiambo, W, Mwangi, S, Kamau, J and Otieno, P 2020, Economic development in Kenya, East African Publishers, Nairobi.
Edited book:
Ochieng, WR (ed.) 1989, Themes in Kenyan history, Heinemann Kenya, Nairobi.
Chapter in edited book:
Mutunga, W 2015, ‘Constitutional implementation in Kenya’, in M Ndulo (ed.), Democratic reform in Africa, Ohio University Press, Athens, OH, pp. 45-67.
Journal Article
Format:
Author, AA Year, ‘Title of article’, Journal Name, vol. X, no. Y, pp. page-page.
Example:
Wainaina, B, Otieno, J and Kamau, M 2020, ‘The impact of corruption on economic growth in Kenya’, East African Journal of Economics, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 234-256.
With DOI:
Add: doi:10.1234/eaje.2020.15.3.234
Online:
Add: viewed 15 June 2023, https://www.journal.com/article
Website
Format:
Author, AA Year, Title of page, Website Name, viewed Day Month Year, [URL].
Example:
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics 2022, Economic survey 2022, KNBS, viewed 10 May 2023, https://www.knbs.or.ke/economic-survey-2022.
No author:
Economic survey 2022 2022, Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, viewed 10 May 2023, https://www.knbs.or.ke.
No date:
Kenya Education Network n.d., CBC implementation guide, viewed 12 April 2023, https://www.kenet.or.ke.
Newspaper Article
Print:
Omondi, P 2023, ‘Schools struggle with CBC implementation’, Daily Nation, 12 June, p. A3.
Online:
Omondi, P 2023, ‘Schools struggle with CBC implementation’, Daily Nation, 12 June, viewed 15 June 2023, https://www.nation.co.ke/kenya/news/schools-struggle.
Report
World Bank 2021, Kenya economic update: navigating the pandemic, World Bank Group, Washington, DC.
Thesis
Mwangi, AK 2019, ‘The impact of mobile money on financial inclusion in Kenya’, PhD thesis, University of Nairobi.
Paraphrasing Properly
Paraphrase = rewording ideas in your own words.
Still requires citation (it’s their idea, even if your words).
Bad Paraphrase (Too Similar)
Original (Ngugi 1986, p. 12):
“Language carries culture, and culture carries, particularly through orature and literature, the entire body of values by which we come to perceive ourselves and our place in the world.”
Bad paraphrase (too close to original):
Language transports culture, and culture transports, especially through oral traditions and written works, the complete set of values through which we understand ourselves and our position in the world (Ngugi 1986, p. 12).
Problem: Just swapped synonyms (carries→transports), same structure.
Good Paraphrase
Ngugi (1986, p. 12) argues that language is inseparable from cultural identity, as it conveys the traditions, stories, and belief systems that shape how individuals understand their role in society.
What makes it good:
- Different sentence structure
- Different words (not just synonyms)
- Captures essence of idea
- Still cited
Direct Quote (When to Use)
Use quotes when:
- Exact wording is important
- Author’s phrasing is particularly powerful
- Defining a term
Don’t overuse: Most of essay should be paraphrasing and analysis, not quotes.
Short quote (less than 40 words in APA, less than 30 in Harvard):
Wainaina (2019, p. 92) asserts, “Corruption in Kenya is not merely an economic issue but a cultural crisis.”
Long quote (40+ words in APA):
- Block quote (indented, no quotation marks)
Wainaina (2019) provides a comprehensive assessment of Kenya’s challenges:
Kenya stands at a crossroads. Decades of corruption, ethnic tensions, and economic inequality have eroded public trust in institutions. However, the resilience of Kenyan civil society, the vibrancy of its media, and the determination of its youth offer hope that meaningful reform is possible. (p. 115)
Common Mistakes
1. Citing Wikipedia
Why it’s problematic: Anyone can edit Wikipedia (not peer-reviewed).
Solution: Use Wikipedia for overview, then cite the sources Wikipedia cites.
2. Forgetting Page Numbers for Quotes
APA requires page numbers for direct quotes.
Wrong: (Ngugi, 1986)
Right: (Ngugi, 1986, p. 45)
3. Inconsistent Style
Don’t mix APA and Harvard.
Pick one, use it throughout.
4. Missing References
In-text citation with no reference list entry (or vice versa).
Check: Every citation has corresponding reference, every reference has citation.
5. Incorrect Punctuation
APA: (Author, Year)
Harvard: (Author Year) [no comma]
Pay attention to commas, periods, italics.
6. Incorrect Author Names
Use format specified (APA: Initials. Harvard: Full first names or initials).
Consistency matters.
7. Not Alphabetizing Reference List
Must be alphabetical by author’s last name.
8. Incorrect Italics
APA: Book titles, journal names (in italics), article titles (not italicized)
Example:
Ngugi wa Thiong’o. (1986). Decolonising the mind. [Italics] Wainaina, B. (2020). Corruption in Kenya. East African Journal. [Journal italicized, article title not]
9. Missing DOI or URL
For online sources, include DOI (if available) or URL.
10. Citing Secondary Sources Incorrectly
If you read Author B who quotes Author A, and you want to cite Author A:
Do: Find Author A’s original work and cite it.
If unavailable: Cite as secondary source.
APA: Smith (as cited in Jones, 2020)
Harvard: Smith (cited in Jones 2020)
In reference list: Only include Jones (the source you actually read).
Tools to Help
Citation Generators (Free)
1. Zotero: Desktop app, stores references, generates citations
- Download: zotero.org
2. Mendeley: Similar to Zotero
- Download: mendeley.com
3. EasyBib: Web-based, simple
- Visit: easybib.com
4. Citation Machine: Web-based
- Visit: citationmachine.net
5. BibMe: Web-based
- Visit: bibme.org
How to use:
- Enter source details (author, title, year, etc.)
- Select style (APA, Harvard, etc.)
- Tool generates citation
- Copy into your reference list
Caution: Tools make mistakes—double-check formatting.
Plagiarism Checkers
1. Turnitin: Used by many Kenyan universities (lecturers submit your work)
2. Grammarly (premium): Checks plagiarism
3. Copyscape: Web-based
4. Plagscan: Checks against academic databases
5. Quetext: Free basic version
Use before submitting to ensure you’ve cited everything.
Reference Management
As you research:
- Record full citation details immediately (don’t lose track)
- Use tool like Zotero to organize
- Export citations when writing essay
Saves hours of scrambling to find sources later.
Kenyan Context
Common Sources in Kenyan Essays
Government:
- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS)
- Ministry reports
- Kenya Gazette
Organizations:
- World Bank
- IMF
- UNDP
- African Development Bank
Kenyan journals:
- African Journal of Business Management
- East African Medical Journal
- Journal of Language, Technology & Entrepreneurship in Africa
Search: African Journals Online (AJOL) for African research.
Challenges
Limited access: Some Kenyan universities lack subscriptions to major databases.
Solution:
- Use Google Scholar (free)
- Request articles via ResearchGate (researchers often share)
- Inter-library loans
- Ask lecturer for PDFs
Referencing Different Disciplines
Humanities (Literature, History): Often MLA or Chicago
Social Sciences (Psychology, Sociology, Education): Usually APA
Business: Often Harvard
Sciences (Biology, Chemistry): Various (APA, CSE)
Medicine: Vancouver
Law: OSCOLA (Oxford)
Check with your department.
Academic Integrity Beyond Referencing
Referencing is one part of academic integrity.
Also important:
- No contract cheating: Don’t pay someone to write your assignment
- No collusion: Write your own work (group work is different—follow guidelines)
- Honest data: Don’t fabricate research results
- Proper attribution: Cite AI tools if used (check university policy—many ban AI for assignments)
Integrity matters: Your degree’s value depends on it.
Checklist Before Submitting
✅ Every in-text citation has reference list entry ✅ Every reference list entry has in-text citation ✅ Reference list alphabetized ✅ Consistent referencing style (all APA or all Harvard, not mixed) ✅ Page numbers included for direct quotes ✅ Proper italics (book titles, journal names) ✅ Hanging indent for reference list ✅ DOI or URL included for online sources ✅ Paraphrases properly reworded (not just synonym swaps) ✅ No plagiarism (checked with tool) ✅ Author names formatted correctly ✅ Dates, publishers, volumes, page ranges included as needed
If all checked: You’re ready to submit.
Practice Exercise
Try referencing these:
-
A book by Chinua Achebe titled “Things Fall Apart,” published in 1958 by Heinemann in London.
-
An article by Jane Wangari titled “Climate change impacts in Kenya” published in 2021 in the East African Journal of Environmental Science, volume 10, issue 2, pages 112-135.
-
A website by the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) titled “CBC Assessment Guidelines,” no author listed, published March 10, 2022, accessed May 20, 2023, at https://www.knec.ac.ke/cbc-guidelines.
Answers (APA):
-
Achebe, C. (1958). Things fall apart. Heinemann.
-
Wangari, J. (2021). Climate change impacts in Kenya. East African Journal of Environmental Science, 10(2), 112-135.
-
Kenya National Examination Council. (2022, March 10). CBC assessment guidelines. https://www.knec.ac.ke/cbc-guidelines
Answers (Harvard):
-
Achebe, C 1958, Things fall apart, Heinemann, London.
-
Wangari, J 2021, ‘Climate change impacts in Kenya’, East African Journal of Environmental Science, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 112-135.
-
Kenya National Examination Council 2022, CBC assessment guidelines, viewed 20 May 2023, https://www.knec.ac.ke/cbc-guidelines.
How did you do?
Final Tips
- Start citing as you write: Don’t leave it to the end (you’ll forget sources)
- Use tools: Citation generators, reference managers
- When in doubt, cite: Over-citing is better than plagiarism
- Check your style guide: APA and Harvard have detailed manuals online
- Ask for help: Librarians, lecturers, writing centers
- Practice: Referencing gets easier with repetition
- Proofread references: Errors here lose you marks
Proper referencing shows respect for scholarship, protects you from plagiarism accusations, and demonstrates academic rigor.
Master this skill early in university—it’ll serve you throughout your academic and professional life.
Start practicing today—pick three sources, try citing them in both APA and Harvard. The more you practice, the more natural it becomes. You’ve got this!